ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE DIFFUSION PROPERTIES OF LIGHTWEIGHT BLOCK CIPHERS BASED ON ROUND-BY-ROUND AVALANCHE ANALYSIS
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.37943/GVCR2663%20Keywords:
lightweight algorithm, diffusion, avalanche effect, SAC, Feistel network, RX structure.Abstract
This paper investigates the diffusion properties of lightweight encryption algorithms designed for deployment in resource-constrained systems. Modern schemes intended for environments with strict limitations on computational complexity and energy consumption are evaluated. Particular attention is paid to the analysis of isolated round functions ‒ particularly their behavior prior to the application of round keys. This approach enables the assessment of internal structural properties independently of the key scheduling procedures and identifies basic diffusion characteristics determined exclusively by the employed bitwise transformations. Specifically, the impact of flipping a single bit in the input block on the distribution of changes in the output data is analyzed, facilitating an evaluation of the quality of internal transformations and their resistance to cryptanalytic attacks. For quantitative evaluation, classical measures of avalanche behavior – the Avalanche Effect and the Strict Avalanche Criterion (SAC) – are used to assess how rapidly and uniformly information propagates within a block after the application of round transformations. All algorithms are evaluated using a unified round-by-round experimental procedure under identical conditions. This ensures a consistent and objective comparison of their diffusion characteristics across successive encryption rounds. The results reveal distinct advantages and limitations in diffusion speed, stabilization behavior, and uniformity among the evaluated lightweight cipher constructions. The comparison shows that schemes based on cyclic rotations and bitwise operations exhibit high diffusion rates with minimal computational complexity. This analysis demonstrates the effectiveness of approaches relying on simple bitwise transformations. The obtained results provide valuable practical design insights for the selection or design of lightweight cryptographic primitives for microcontrollers, sensor networks, and other devices with limited computational capabilities.
References
Gharat, N., & Jolly, D. (2025). A lightweight, energy-efficient modified AES algorithm for real-time IoT applications. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 18, 2897–2907. https://doi.org/10.17485/IJST/v18i35.1156
Rana, M., Mamun, Q., & Islam, M. R. (2021). Lightweight cryptography in IoT networks: A survey. Future Generation Computer Systems, 129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2021.11.011
Easttom, C. (2022). Feistel networks. In Modern cryptography: Applied mathematics for encryption and information security (pp. 139–168). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12304-7_6
Phadtare, V., & Patil, R. (2025). Distinguisher for substitution–permutation networks. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research, 7. https://doi.org/10.36948/ijfmr.2025.v07i03.44144
Huang, M., Xu, Z., & Wang, L. (2021). On the probability and automatic search of rotational-XOR cryptanalysis on ARX ciphers. The Computer Journal, 65. https://doi.org/10.1093/comjnl/bxab126
Yang, J., Li, L., Guo, Y., & Huang, X. (2022). DULBC: A dynamic ultra-lightweight block cipher with high-throughput. Integration, 87, 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vlsi.2022.07.011
Kapalova, N., Algazy, K., & Haumen, A. (2023). Development of a new lightweight encryption algorithm. Eastern-European Journal of Enterprise Technologies, 3(9(123)), 6–19. https://doi.org/10.15587/1729-4061.2023.280055
Pang, K., Abdul-Latip, S., Jamil, N., & Rani, H. (2025). Improved recursive construction of S-box satisfying perfect strict avalanche criterion. Malaysian Journal of Mathematical Sciences, 19, 933–959. https://doi.org/10.47836/mjms.19.3.09
Hamarsheh, M., & Salah, S. (2025). MPRESENT: A lightweight cryptographic cipher for optimizing energy efficiency in IoT applications. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-025-10432-2
Hediyal, N., & Divakar, B. P. (2025). Design of dynamic F-function for lightweight block ciphers. Defence Science Journal, 75, 531–538. https://doi.org/10.14429/dsj.20567
Sasikala, T., & Gupta, A. (2025). Lightweight block cipher for security in resource-constrained networks. International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering Systems, 16, 507–515. https://doi.org/10.32985/ijeces.16.7.2
Yue, X., Li, L., Li, Q., Xiang, J., & Hu, Z. (2024). QLW: A lightweight block cipher with high diffusion. The Journal of Supercomputing, 81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11227-024-06707-4
Mohd Esa, N., Abdul-Latip, S., & Abu, N. (2022). A new design of substitution box with ideal strict avalanche criterion. Malaysian Journal of Mathematical Sciences, 16, 697–715. https://doi.org/10.47836/mjms.16.4.04
Leurent, G., Pernot, C., & Schrottenloher, A. (2021). Clustering effect in SIMON and SIMECK. In M. Tibouchi & H. Wang (Eds.), Advances in cryptology – ASIACRYPT 2021 (Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 13090). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92062-3_10
Lu, J., Liu, G., Sun, B., Li, C., & Liu, L. (2023). Improved (related-key) differential-based neural distinguishers for SIMON and SIMECK block ciphers. The Computer Journal, 67. https://doi.org/10.1093/comjnl/bxac195
Wu, W., & Guo, M. (2024). Improved integral neural distinguisher model for lightweight cipher PRESENT. Cybersecurity, 7, Article 65. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-024-00258-0.
Chaitanya, K., Mishra, Z., Singh, P., & Acharya, B. (2024). Flexible and area-optimised hardware architectures of LEA block cipher for IoT applications. International Journal of High Performance Systems Architecture, 12(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJHPSA.2024.145714.
Aguilar, J., Sierra, S., & Jacinto, E. (2015). Implementation of HIGHT encryption algorithm on microcontroller. In Proceedings of Chilecon 2015 (pp. 937–942). https://doi.org/10.1109/Chilecon.2015.7404685
Hussein, N., Hoobi, M., & Sarab, S. (2025). Enhanced TEA algorithm performance using affine transformation and chaotic Arnold map. Mesopotamian Journal of Computer Science, 341–354. https://doi.org/10.58496/MJCSC/2025/22
. Vaughn, R., & Borowczak, M. (2024). Strict avalanche criterion of SHA-256 and sub-function-removed variants. Cryptography, 8(3), 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030040
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Articles are open access under the Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish a manuscript in this journal agree to the following terms:
- The authors reserve the right to authorship of their work and transfer to the journal the right of first publication under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which allows others to freely distribute the published work with a mandatory link to the the original work and the first publication of the work in this journal.
- Authors have the right to conclude independent additional agreements that relate to the non-exclusive distribution of the work in the form in which it was published by this journal (for example, to post the work in the electronic repository of the institution or publish as part of a monograph), providing the link to the first publication of the work in this journal.
- Other terms stated in the Copyright Agreement.